Three Basic Principles of Utilitarianism

Utilitarianism is one of the most important and influential moral theories of modern times. In many respects, it is the outlook of Scottish philosopher  David Hume (1711-1776) and his writings from the mid-18th century. But it received both its name and its clearest statement in the writings of English philosophers Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832) and John Stuart Mill (1806-1873). Even today Mills essay Utilitarianism, which was published in 1861, remains one of the most widely taught expositions of the doctrine. There are three principles that serve as the basic axioms of utilitarianism. 1. Pleasure or Happiness Is the Only Thing That Truly Has Intrinsic Value. Utilitarianism gets its name from the term utility, which in this context does not mean useful but, rather, means pleasure or happiness.  To say that something has intrinsic value means that it is simply good in itself.  A world in which this thing exists, or is possessed, or is experienced, is better than a world without it (all other things being equal). Intrinsic value contrasts with instrumental value.  Something has instrumental value when it is a means to some end.  For example, a screwdriver has instrumental value to the carpenter; it is not valued for its own sake but for what can be done with it. Now Mill admits that we seem to value some things other than pleasure and happiness for their own sake—we value health, beauty, and knowledge in this way. But he argues that we  never  value anything unless we associate it in some way with pleasure or happiness. Thus, we value beauty because it is pleasurable to behold. We value knowledge because,  usually, it is useful to us in coping with the world, and hence is linked to happiness. We value love and friendship because they are sources of pleasure and happiness. Pleasure and happiness, though, are unique in being valued purely for their own sake. No other reason for valuing them needs to be given. It is better to be happy than sad. This cant really be proved. But everyone thinks this. Mill thinks of happiness as consisting of many and varied pleasures. Thats why he runs the two concepts together. Most utilitarians, though, talk mainly of happiness, and that is what we will do from this point on. 2. Actions Are Right Insofar as They Promote Happiness, Wrong Insofar as They Produce Unhappiness. This principle is controversial. It makes utilitarianism a form of consequentialism since it says that the morality of an action is decided by its consequences. The more happiness is produced among those affected by the action, the better the action is. So, all things being equal, giving presents to a whole gang of children is better than giving a present to just one. Similarly, saving two lives is better than saving one life. That can seem quite sensible. But the principle is controversial because many people would say that what decides the morality of an action is the  motive  behind it. They would say, for instance, that if you give $1,000 to charity because you want to look good to voters in an election, your action is not so deserving of praise as if you gave $50 to charity motivated by compassion, or a sense of duty. 3. Everyones Happiness Counts Equally. This may strike you as a rather obvious moral principle. But when it was put forward by Bentham (in the form, everyone to count for one; no-one for more than one) it was quite radical. Two hundred years ago, it was a commonly held view that some lives, and the happiness they contained, were simply more important and valuable than others.  For example, the lives of masters were more important than slaves; the well-being of a king was more important than that of a peasant. So in Benthams time, this principle of equality was decidedly progressive.  It lay behind calls on the government to pass policies that would benefit all equally, not just the ruling elite. It is also the reason why utilitarianism is very far removed from any kind of egoism. The doctrine does not say that you should strive to maximize your own happiness. Rather, your happiness is just that of one person and carries no special weight. Utilitarians like the Australian philosopher Peter Singer take this idea of treating everyone equally very seriously. Singer argues that we have the same obligation to help needy strangers in far-off places as we have to help those closest to us. Critics think that this makes utilitarianism unrealistic and too demanding. But in Utilitarianism,  Mill attempts to answer this criticism by arguing that the general happiness is best served by each person focusing primarily on themselves and those around them. Benthams commitment to equality was radical in another way, too. Most moral philosophers before him had held that human beings have no particular obligations to animals since animals cant reason or talk, and they lack free will. But in Benthams view, this is irrelevant. What matters is whether an animal is capable of feeling pleasure or pain. He doesnt say that we should treat animals as if they were human. But he does think that the world is a better place if there is more pleasure and less suffering among the animals as well as among us. So we should at least avoid causing animals unnecessary suffering.

Pathophysiology Of Type II Non Insulin Dependent Diabetes...

Pathophysiology of Type II Non-Insulin Dependent diabetes mellitus (NIDDM): Type II Non-insulin dependent diabetes is the most common. It often occurs in older adults, patients who are overweight, and patient with metabolic disorders. It can happen at any age though. The tissues in the body have built some resistance to insulin. The insulin levels in these patients can vary from low to high and can also be normal. You might be at risk of developing Non-insulin dependent diabetes if you have a family history diabetes, being obese, not exercising enough, and your age. Rosdahl (2012) notes that Non-insulin dependent diabetes patients do not need insulin for life but May or may not need it to help control their insulin levels. Most patients†¦show more content†¦Treatment for non-insulin dependent diabetes is different for everyone. For example, if a patient is obese they would have try to choose a healthier way of eating and meal planning, also include and exercise routine. For overweight patients weight management is very important. Some may need medic ation to help with insulin but not all. Pathophysiology of Type I Insulin Dependent diabetes mellitus (IDDM): In type I Insulin diabetes mellitus. Usually patients who get it are younger patients. Type I diabetes signs and symptoms are extreme thirst extreme hunger, and extreme urination, which are usually always present. Just like in type II diabetes, some test that they will take for type I diabetes are fasting plasma glucose test, which is done in the morning before eating to keep track of your glucose levels and oral glucose tolerance test, which is done by glucose check in the morning, they then have you drink a liquid that is high in glucose, you wait 2 hours and finally your glucose is checked again. Treatment for patients with type I diabetes is a life time insulin injections. The pancreas and if a patient does not produce or make enough the glucose levels will rise in the blood making the patient hyperglycemic (which is high sugar levels in the blood) because they cannot enter the body cell. This is where the pati ent would need their insulin injections to help keep their blood sugar regulated. Identify and compare the signs and symptoms of Type I and Type II

A Good Man Is Hard to Find Irony Free Essays

â€Å"A Good Man is Hard to Find† In the short story, â€Å"A Good Man is Hard to Find† there is irony all through the pages. It shows how you should follow your gut instinct when you think you shouldn’t go somewhere, when you know something bad is going to happen. In the story it also talks about how the grandmother wore her nice clothes in case of an accident, she wanted to look like a lady in case anything bad was to happen. We will write a custom essay sample on A Good Man Is Hard to Find: Irony or any similar topic only for you Order Now The grandmother was constantly talking about the good in people, but was she a good woman? The first bit of irony the story throws at the reader is on the first page when the grandmother is talking about how she doesn’t want to go to Florida because that’s where the Misfit is headed. As the grandmother is trying to get her son Bailey to listen as she says, â€Å"The Misfit is aloose from the Federal Pen and headed toward Florida and you read here what it says he did to these people. Just you read it. I wouldn’t take my children in any direction with a criminal like that aloose in it. I couldn’t answer to my conscience if I did† (O’Connor 281). Now I don’t believe that the ironic twist is that the misfit was headed to Florida just like the family, I believe that the twist is that the Misfit just so happen be on the same dirt road that the grandmother asked her son Bailey to turn down later on in the story. The grandmother wanted to turn down this dirt road in Georgia because she remembered an old plantation house she had visited when she was younger. After turning down the road she then remembered that this was not the road at all, the old plantation house she had remembered was in Tennessee, not Georgia. The second major ironic twist that stood out to me was how the grandmother wore good clothes to go on a road trip, â€Å"In case of an accident, anyone seeing her dead on the highway would know at once she was a lady† (O’Connor 282). The grandmother wore a navy dress with a straw hat that had white violets on it. Indeed the grandmother was dressed like a lady, but did she act upon it at all times? I think she did just that, I believe she acted like a lady but was not truly one. Grandmothers cat caused Bailey to have an accident. †¦as the grandmother limped out of the car, her hat still pinned to her head but the broken front brim standing up at a jaunty angle and the violet spray hanging off the side† (O’Connor 287). At this point is when I believe that the grandmother acts as if she is a lady. If she was a true lady then maybe her clothes would not have been messed up, or there wouldn’t have been an accident at all. But there is still that piec e of thought about how the grandmother knew to dress in case of an accident. The final bit of irony is how the grandmother kept talking about good men, and how they are hard to find. When the family stops at the diner to eat she talks to Red Sammy and his wife about how hard good men are hard to find, but then she also tells Red Sammy that he is a good man because he let a couple of men charge gas. Red Sammy’s wife says there isn’t no one that she can trust, â€Å"‘And I don’t count nobody out of that, not nobody,’ she repeated, looking at Red Sammy† (O’Connor 285). After they wreck a car shows up with The Misfit and his two side kicks in it, who turn out not to be good men. The grandmother realizes real soon that the man is The Misfit, she recognized him from the picture in the newspaper. Soon after arriving Bobby Lee takes Bailey and his son John Wesley into the woods to kill them. The grandmother went on about how the Misfit could be a good man, and how he should pray. The Misfit told her that his family was good people, he just wasn’t. Soon Bobby Lee and Hiram took the childrens mother, June Star, and the baby to the woods to meet up with the boys. The grandmother then realized that she must think of something soon, because she would be next. They started talking about Jesus and how he did or didn’t raise the dead. The Misfit said that if he didn’t know but if he would have been there he would have known better and wouldn’t be the way he is now. â€Å"Why you’re one of my own babies. You’re one of my own children! † (O’Connor 293). After the grandmother said that she touched him on the shoulder and the Misfit turned around and shot her three times in the chest. This was a great short story for irony, because the grandmother was correct about most things. The grandmother knew not to go towards Florida because The Misfit was headed that way after escaping from the pen. She was right about dressing like a lady in case of an accident, because indeed there was an accident, but she caused the accident by bringing her cat along without anyone knowing. Then there is speak of a good man, is there any such thing? Red Sammy’s wife wouldn’t even think of him as a good man, if your wife doesn’t believe you are no one really can. The Misfit comes along and talks to the grandmother for a while about good people, while doing so shoots her family then her dead. ‘â€Å"She would have been a good woman,† The Misfit said, â€Å"if it had been somebody there to shoot her every minute of her life†Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ (O’Connor 293). This goes with my assumption that the grandmother was just acting like a lady, and The Misfit even saw through her lies. How to cite A Good Man Is Hard to Find: Irony, Papers

Definition of Religion free essay sample

Aaron Everette Intro to Religious Thought Dr. Gibbs September 11, 2009 The Definition of Religion Melford E. Spiro a contemporary anthropologist defined religion as â€Å"an institution consisting culturally patterned interaction with culturally postulated superhuman beings†. I prefer this definition of religion over Paul Tillich’s for one its less complicated as Tillich’s. Also because religion is basically a institution in a sense as some of us go to a place of worship in some form of another. Those places can be considered institutions for the ones wanting to worship there godly figure.Religions are culturally patterned, they interact with each other is some shape or form weather it’s through its worship figure or the way the religion is based on its believes its views of the world, the people. For instants Muslims believe when they die they go to a heaven of some sort and meet Allah. Christians believe when they die if they tried to live without being very sinful, Christian and believed in the god they go to heaven and meet Christ himself. We will write a custom essay sample on Definition of Religion or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Atheists believe in science and don’t believe in gods or worship their views say that when they pass there remains will be soaked into the earth and they come back as part of the land.So Many religions interact with each other either in bad ways or good ones. Another things Spiro States in his definition is that religion is â€Å"culturally postulated superhuman beings†. These superhuman beings Spiro is referring to would be for Christians it would be Jesus or God, for Buddhists it would be of coarse Buddha for Muslims they believe in Allah even though they have never seen or know what this figure looks like they heard his word through a massager named Muhammad.These Superhuman figures are for some a sense of hope in troubled time that we can turn too or a way to live a better live for others. We can believe worship whatever we like or what works for us that’s the great thing about the freedom of religion. Spiro’s definition is best fit cause its blunt bu t it makes you open up your mind to thing to understand others way of live.

Three Tests Of Truth Essays - Theories Of Truth, Philosophical Logic

Three Tests Of Truth In a court of law expert witnesses are required to demonstrate the truth "beyond reasonable doubt". This is difficult for a 'knower', such as a historian, to be able to assert this at the witness stand. Let's say that a young couple has just been married. The young couple stays together for a couple of months before they break up. When the two individually write reports on why the divorce is necessary, the judge is confused about the disparity between them. Thus, he calls upon a historian who specializes in the history of certain marriages and divorces to act as an expert witness for this court case. The historian is given information on the case both first-hand by the husband and the wife as well as from some secondary sources. This historian's job is to use his expertise to determine the truth of what really happened that caused the divorce of the couple. First and foremost, the historian knows that he must try to get as close to the objective truth as possible; he has to select a single set of data from groups of different information to construct a single truth, or'what really happened'. Since he is dealing with a modern case, as opposed to his usual account of a past divorce case, the historian is tempted to list all the data from the primary sources. Fortunately, he remembers that listing all the different points of view is not more objective, simply because they may contradict. Regardless of the varying points of view, the past event only could have occurred in one way-that is the truth. Therefore, to say that the event transpired in many different ways that are all equally valid is no longer a search for single truth. As von Ranke said, "the historian's task is to find out how it really was." Consequently, the historian tries to 'lift' himself from the data. He also must remove his biases from the sources of the information. For instance, he cannot be biased against the husband's brother who backed into his brand-new convertible just a week ago. He must give the brother's information the same treatment because it may be valuable. After achieving this, the historian can move on to the actual selection of the data. The historian's next step is to use the correspondence test of truth by trying to find the certain data that is pretty well constant amongst all the information. This correspondence theory is the same one that is used in science, where scientists do different experiments; if their data is constant, then a scientific theory can be made about the data. For example, when scientists did experiments on the reaction between iron and oxygen, they kept on producing the same rusty coloured substance: iron oxide. Thus, they are able to conclude that iron + oxygen = iron oxide is a truth. Like chemistry, history uses correspondence between data. Presuppose that all reports of the separated couple indicate that the husband did not remember his wife's birthday and that she did not want children. What gives this data extra durability is that it was found in both the husband's and the wife's account, as well as in the secondary sources' information. Moreover, it makes indicative statements about why the divorce could have occurred. Therefore, it is possible to conclude with a measure of confidence that the statements are true beyond a reasonable doubt. Nevertheless, the historian questions his judgement and begins to think, 'Does correspondence necessarily mean that the data is true?' He immediately remembers his high school history class where he studied documents about the American Revolution written by people from the American and British sides. Although the data differed in many ways, there was a lot of consistency between the two sides. When considering the battle at Lexington Green, both sides contained consistent information: that there was a first shot, that the British shot at the Americans, and that the British killed a number of people. However, in historical information from different sources, some data may be contradictory. In this case, there may have been a multitude of American sources which said that the first shot was British while there may have been only a few British sources available, all of which stated the opposite. One could say that because there is a larger degree of correspondence that the British shot first, that is must be true. But, that may not be correct in all instances. Hence, there must be other methods of deciding what is the

Patricia Vickers-Rich - A Profile of the Famous Paleontologist

Patricia Vickers-Rich - A Profile of the Famous Paleontologist Name: Patricia Vickers-Rich Born: 1944 Nationality: Australian; born in the United States Dinosaurs Named: Leaellynasaura, Qantassaurus, Timimus About Patricia Vickers-Rich Sometimes, even globe-trotting paleontologists become associated with the specific geographical areas in which they made their most famous fossil discoveries. Such is the case with Patricia Vickers-Rich, who along with her husband, fellow paleontologist Tom Rich, has become virtually synonymous with Dinosaur Cove. In 1980, the couple explored the remains of  this ancient river channel, studded with bones, on the southern coast of Australiaand soon they began a careful series of excavations, which involved the strategic use of dynamite and sledgehammers. (Vickers-Rich is not a native-born Australian; she was actually born in the United States, and emigrated Down Under in 1976.) Over the next 20 years, Vickers-Rich and her husband made a series of important discoveries, including the small, big-eyed theropod Leaellynasaura (which they named after their daughter) and the mysterious ornithomimid, or bird-mimic dinosaur, Timimus (which they named after their son). When they ran out of children after which to name their fossils, they turned to the corporate institutions of Australia: Qantassaurus was named after Qantas, the Australian national airline, and Atlascopcosaurus after a prominent manufacturer of mining equipment. What makes these finds especially important is that, during the later Mesozoic Era, Australia was located much farther south than it is today and it was therefore much colderso Vickers-Richs dinosaurs are among the few known to have lived in near-Antarctic conditions.

No topic Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 45

No topic - Essay Example This company has developed an innovative way of conducting its advertisements. As such, the company has adopted branded entertainment as a key strategy of ensuring that it conveys the adverts of its clients in an effective manner. This has been evidenced by the ability of the company to place the adverts of various products in comic books, video games and Broadway musicals that include the pop music (Bradley, Kelley and Hudson 6). The company has also realized that entertainment is a rich platform, which can be used to convey various adverts on products that companies adverts. This is because entertainment attracts a large number of potential customers of products from different companies. Branded entertainment is also facilitating in improving the viewership of the quality adverts. Hence, consumers have illustrated a positive acceptance of this form of advertisement by make purchase choices, which are based on these

Police and Criminal Evidence Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 8750 words

Police and Criminal Evidence - Coursework Example The boundaries between its strict application and exercise of discretion shall be presented for the purpose of shedding more light to the public. It will include examination of all relevant decisions of the courts so that the factors affecting the exercise of discretion could be clearly identified. It will also include a study of connecting the policies with the actual practice in courts. Thus, legal as well as practical recommendations shall be made in the end. As a general rule, criminal laws are enacted in order to protect the society from unscrupulous elements of the law and vindicate the rights of the victims, which have been violated by the suspects. These laws lay down the specific acts which, when committed, create a demandable right, both on the state and the individual, to pursue the suspect and indict him for the malfeasance committed. Thus, justice on the part of the victim could be obtained by merely proving the existence of probable cause against the suspect so that the police authorities could immediately act and apprehend the suspect for prosecution and trial. On the other hand, criminal procedure as embodied in the Police and Criminal Evidence Act 1984 (PACE) lays down the policies as well as th... Thus, justice on the part of the victim could be obtained by merely proving the existence of probable cause against the suspect so that the police authorities could immediately act and apprehend the suspect for prosecution and trial. On the other hand, criminal procedure as embodied in the Police and Criminal Evidence Act 1984 (PACE) lays down the policies as well as the limitations to be observed by the police that will serve as guidance to the magistrates who will handle the case. One of the issues embraced therein is the admissibility of evidence procured by the police thru means not sanctioned by law. In short, the question is whether or not the court, for purposes of convicting the accused, should accept the evidence illegally obtained by the police authorities. Those who oppose the proposition base their arguments on the legal maxim that such kind of evidence is 'a fruit of the poisonous tree' and therefore must not be used. No amount of evidence, no matter how substantial it would be, could justify its use for the conviction of an accused, which, incidentally, is always presumed to be innocent unless proven beyond reasonable doubt. Hence, the end does not justify the means. Indeed, if conviction of an accused will lie on evidence that has been obtained in violation of the latter's rights, absolute justice will still not prevail as in the process, injustice was also meted to the accused. This should not be the case of the English judicial system. On the other hand, adherents of the proposition stand firm on the logic of the maxim, 'The end justifies the means.' It has been argued that justice to the victims should not be

Trend and analysis of SLS hotel external environment Research Paper

Trend and analysis of SLS hotel external environment - Research Paper Example The SLS Luxury brand caters to a specific class of people who desire a lifestyle of high-class service, sophistication, â€Å"over the top† luxury, and an atmosphere that fulfills these needs. SLS Hotels have created a new paradigm in the luxury hotel experience that speaks to a global, sophisticated audience. â€Å"SLS† stands for â€Å"style, luxury, and service. This speaks to the needs of today’s sophisticated travelers, offering an array of widely customizable features and an unwavering commitment to innovation and superior guest service (Hotels, 2014). The sort of products and administrations requested by customers is generally impacted by their convictions and state of mind which, on the other hand, are affected by social molding. The surrounding social entities and the associated activities. The Hollywood presence, for instance, presents the hotel with great opportunity for the constant flow of clients who even stay for longer periods. The hotel location is a great contributor to the accessibility by the target population who include the diplomatic tourists and business persons in Los Angeles. Beverly Hills and Los Angeles, in particular, is a popular destination for people seeking luxury and high-class lifestyle. The Hollywood movie industry, high-end shopping options and opportunities, beaches and resorts such as Santa Monica Pier and Venice boardwalk, attractions such as the Universal Studios, many museums and cultural events in L.A constitutes to the main social factors that make the destination popular (Enz, 2009). Being an economic hub, Los Angeles provides the hotel with an adequate supply of market as business people from all over the world frequently come to the city for conferences (Hotels, 2014). The growing population of Beverly Hills is also a social factor to consider. Currently, the population of the city stands at over 34,000 people. However, the population has various demands depending on the age-group and socioeconomic factors.

Treating Cystic Fibrosis with Gene Therapy

Treating Cystic Fibrosis with Gene Therapy In this dissertation we shall consider the field of gene therapy in specific relation to cystic fibrosis.   We examine the different delivery vector mechanisms that have already been explored and concentrate primarily on the adeno-associated vectors. We examine the current state of research and consider the advantages and drawbacks of the various methods considered. We conclude with a discussion and analysis of our findings and   make anumber of assumptions relating to the future direction of the researchin the field.   The rate of progress in the field of gene therapy has been enormous. We must remind ourselves that the first clinical gene transfer experiment took place in 1989 when a patient with malignant melanoma received genetically modified auto logous T cells. (Rosenberg SA et al1990) Gene therapy encompasses two major areas. The in vivo field, where genes are incorporated into the target cells of the living body and the ex-vivo field where the target cells themselves are genetically modified outside the body and then re-implanted. Medical science has been using the basic techniques of gene transfer for a long time. The technique has been exploited when viral genes are introduced to human cells when a viral vaccine is administered. The key technologies that allowed the transition from vaccination to gene therapy were the evolution of methods that allowed the genes to be isolated and replicated (cloned) and manipulated (engineered) prior to transfer into human cells (Freeman SM et al 1996) The key principle in this process is the efficient transfer of the manipulated therapeutic genes into the nuclei of target cells usually be means of various vectors. This dissertation will be considering the utilisation of these vectors in some detail. In broad terms, the new or modified genetic material is able to produce new proteins which can restore deficient or abnormal functions of genetically diseased tissues, to generate tissues that have entirely new properties or to create transplantable tissues for the controlled release of therapeutic proteins. (Russell SJ  1997) In terms of viral vectors, prior to 1996 science was dependent on the use of modified retroviral vectors (eg.MMLV) to effect gene transfer into the chromosomes of a target cell and the adenovirus vectors when such integration was not needed. Neither vector was particularly successful as the intact nuclear membrane (in then on-dividing state) was a major barrier for chromosomal gene integration. (Sikorski R et al 1998). A breakthrough came with the realisation that lentiviruses (e.g. HIV) have the same ability to transfer genetic coding into the cellular genome but could do this in the non-dividing or dormant phase cells. (Amado R G et al 1999) In vitro, lentiviruses have been shown to change the target cell’s expression of proteins for up to six months. importantly, they can be used for terminally differentiated cells such as respiratory epithelium. The only cells that the lentivirus cannot penetrate the nucleus are those in the quiescent (G0) state as this blocks the reverse transcription stages of protein synthesis. (Amado R G et al1999) Cystic fibrosis Cystic fibrosis is the most commonly lethal inherited recessive inthe caucasian population. It affects about 1 per 2,500 livebirths. Thetreatment of cystic fibrosis has improved enormously in the last fiftyyears with the life expectancy increasing from an average 10 years to30-40 years now. The prime cause of death in affected individuals is the repeatedcycle of infection, inflammation and fibrosis of the respiratory tractwhich eventually culminates in respiratory failure and death. The disease itself is caused   by mutations in the single gene forthe cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) whichproduces a protein found in sweat and pancreatic ducts, gut,seminiferous tubules, lungs and many other tissues. The mutationsresult in an abnormal protein which, when expressed in the lungs,produces thick viscous and dehydrated secretions. This does not allow for the efficient expulsion of bacterial pathogensfrom the lungs and a number of highly resistant forms of bacteria arecommonly found in cystic fibrosis (viz pseudomonas aeruginosa)(Porteous DJ et al 1997). An individual must receive a defective copy of the cystic fibrosisgene from each parent in order to develop the clinical picture ofcystic fibrosis. Following normal genetic principles, if two carriersconceive a child, there is a 25% chance that it will have cysticfibrosis, a 50% chance that it will be a carrier and a 25% chance thatit will have two normal cystic fibrosis genes. Viral and non viral vectors Viruses have an ability to enter a host cell and combine their owngenetic material with that of the host cell. This is the basicrationale behind the science of gene transfer therapy.   As we shalldiscuss in some detail in this dissertation, there are a number ofpotential viral vectors that have been explored, evaluated andexploited in the search for an efficient and safe form of therapy.Viruses are not the only vector that can be utilised . Simply placingDNA in the nasal mucosa will produce some incorporation into theepithelial cells (Knowles MR et al 1998). This â€Å"absorption† can bedemonstrably enhanced further by the combination of the DNA withvarious plasmid or lipid complexes(Zabner et al 1997) The advantages of lipid or plasmid assisted transfer mechanisms arethat they do not appear to generate the immunological responses thatare seen with the viral vectors. They can also be used to facilitatethe transport of much larger pieces of DNA which would otherwise belimited by the packaging consideration incumbent on the viral vectors.(Felgner P 1997). The use of retroviral vectors is far from straightforward. The heavilypublicised case in April 2000 brought some of the problems to theattention of the media. A retroviral manipulation of   a case of X-SCID(X linked severe combined immunodeficiency) was treated by gene therapywith an apparent degree of success (BBC 2002). This particular diseaseprocess is caused by a mutation on the gene which codes for the C chainof the cytokine receptors which is situated on the X chromosome andvital for the functional development of T Killer lymphocytes which aretherefore completely absent in the condition A multinational team used a retroviral vector to insert a functionalcopy of the gene into bone marrow stem cells which were thenre-transfused back into the patient. (Cavazzana-Calvo M et al 2000).This particular case resulted in a return to normal levels of T cellsin a comparatively short period of time. This was hailed in both thepopular media and the peer reviewed journals as a major success and itcan indeed be considered a landmark as it pioneered the successful useof an ex-vivo procedure that avoided direct in vivo transfer of thevector. The reason for specifically highlighting this particular case isthat following the initial optimism of the clinical team, two of thefirst ten patients with this condition who were treated in the same waysubsequently developed a leukaemia-like illness. Genetic analysis ofthe malignant cells suggested that the retroviral vector used in thetransfer had also activated an oncogene LIM-only2 (LMO2) which is knownto be associated with some forms of leukaemia. The clinicians reviewingthe situation felt that, although it was not the only cause of themalignancy it was one of the events that triggered it. Similar concernshave been raised in respect of other clinical trials. (Lehrman S 1999) The prime reason for presenting these events is to demonstrate thefact that there is both a theoretical and practical risk of insertionalmutagenesis. Reduction of the risk requires greater specificity of thetargeting of the genetic deficit   perhaps by directing the expressionof the therapeutic genes to various specific tissues utilising bothtransductional and transcriptional targeting. Relph K et al 2004), In terms of specific considerations of the arguments in favour of theuse of retroviral   vectors, one can cite the fact that they have ahighly efficient mechanism of gene transfer together with lowimmunogenicity. It is a well researched and well studied system and isknown to selectively infect actively dividing cells. The conversearguments reflect their disadvantages including their ability todisturb or activate oncogenes, the fact that they are difficulty tospecifically target and it is difficult to obtain high titres in theclinical situation (after Olsen, J. C. 1998). In broad terms, the principles behind the use of retroviral vectorsare that they must be modified in order not to be able to transmit anyovertly pathological coding. This involves the deletion of viral helpergenes such as gag, pol and env   to render the replication processinvalid. This is done by utilisation of a producer or packaging cellline. (Nichols, E. K 1998). An example of a commonly utilised and extensively researched vector isthe MoMuLV. It is an engineered vector which can store 8 kb of RNAwithout compromising packaging efficiency. It is a hybrid cell lineeasily grown in mouse fibroblast cells There is a subdivision of the retroviral vectors known as thelentivirus, which is the only retroviral vector capable of integratinginto the chromosomes of non-dividing cells. This has been effectivelydemonstrated in vitro (Naldini L et al 1996).    The biggest problem with the lentivirus vectors is that theyappeared to only produce very low titres. Some recent researchsuggested that a modification to a amphotropic envelope protien wascapable of allowing higher titre levels. (Rolls M et al 1999) At about the same time that the scientific press was learning aboutthe problems with retroviral transfer (see above) other investigatorswere working with adeno-associated viruses (AAVs). A similar processwas invoked using adeno-associated viruses to correct a genetic defectinvolving coagulation factor IX. The adeno-associated viruses were usedas they were considered to be amongst the safest candidates for genetransfer. They do not naturally cause disease processes in humans andhave only rarely been found to incorporate in a random fashion into thehuman genome. Although it is noted that adenoviruses do cause oncogeneactivation in rodents although it has not been found in humans(Blacklow NR 1988).   The trial had a very positive outcome. (Kay MA et al 2000), but thetrial author (in later research work) published a study which suggestedthat, in study mice, the vector used in the trials actually integrateditself into gene containing regions of DNA more frequently that it didinto non-coding regions (Kay MA et al 2003). The findings were reportedas the fact that new genetic material was randomly distributed amongstall of the chromosomes particularly at sites of gene activity. On thisbasis, there appears to be at least a theoretical basis for thepossibility of similar cellular defects such as occurred in the X-SCIDpatients. Adenoviruses are comparatively simple structures. They arecategorised as double stranded DNA viruses. They have icosahedralcapsids with twelve vertices and seven surface proteins. The virionitself is spherical and non-enveloped and in the region of 70-90 nm insize. Their natural history is that they are spread easily in the naturalstate by the faeco-oral route and also by respiratory inhalation whichclearly has great implications for the treatment of cystic fibrosis. A theoretical analysis would immediately suggest that the adenovirus should be a suitable candidate for gene therapy as they can codefor specific proteins and they do not produce infection pathogenicviral offspring.    The early trials into this particular area were reviewed by Griesenbach(Griesenbach U et al 2002) who pointed out that the cystic fibrosisgene was first cloned in 1989 and in the subsequent   years, 18different trials were carried out, all with rather low degrees ofsuccess. They collectively trialed three different vectors, namelyadenoviruses, adeno-associated viruses 2 and cationic liposomes, andalmost universally found that each vector had a very low rate ofclinically significant gene transfer and none was sufficient to achieveclinical benefit    Plasmid Complexes At its most basic level, a plasmid is a small accessory collection ofDNA which is found in the cytoplasm outside of the nucleus. They arecapable of independent replication and can be manipulated with rathermore ease than nuclear DNA. Early investigations into the field of gene transfer explored thepossibility of plasmid vectors   and demonstrated the feasibility of themethod to effect CFTR gene transfer in vitro (Alton EW 1993). Otherteams had demonstrated the fact that, in clinical use theplasmid-liposome is both nontoxic and non-immunogenic (Hyde,SC et al1993).   This appeared to raise the possibility that many of theimmunological problems encountered by teams working with viral mediatedgene transfer mechanisms might be circumvented. In vivo work (Yoshimura,K et al. 1992) had demonstrated that genescould be transferred into the cytoplasm by this method and Stribling, R(et al 1992) demonstrated that, once there, they would then replicatenormally. Alton experimented with a CFTR-plasmid preparation in miceand demonstrated that it was capable of correcting the chloride levelsin cystic fibrosis mice back to normal levels (Alton EW 1993) Although the initial results were encouraging, clinical trials weredisappointing as the plasmid complex could not easily penetrate thethick mucous residues in the diseased lungs of patients with cysticfibrosis. (Erickson,R 1993) The plasmids typically have a positively charged head-group which isable to bind to the DNA strand and a hydrophobic tail group whichfacilitates the transfer of the complex across the cellular membranes.Initial studies suggest that   between 100-1000 times more DNA isrequired to effect successful gene transfer when this method iscompared to viral vectors. (Santis,G et al 1994). One alternative adaptation has been reported by Stern M (et al 2003)who points out that one of the solution of delivery is to ensure thatthe respiratory epithelium is exposed to the DNA over a long period.Their solution was to encapsulate the CFTR-plasmid in a slow releasebiocompatible polymer. Clinical trials are underway but not yetreported. The adeno-associated vectors appear to have (at least on atheoretical basis) a number of advantages over the vectors that we havealready discussed. They are based on a virus vector that is alreadynon-pathogenic (Berns, KI et al 1995) and has a mechanism that allowsit to be a long-term persistent entity in human cells (Blacklow, NR etal 1989). The adeno-associated vectors are particularly useful indealing with disease process that involve single gene mutations. This,therefore   makes it particularly suitable for single gene disorderssuch as cystic fibrosis and alpha 1 antitrypsin deficiency. (Flotte, TRet al 1998). In addition, some workers have also developed vectors which are capableof   producing either inducible or constitutive expression of thecytokine, interlukin-10   (IL-10) which is an importantanti-inflammatory protein which, on a theoretical basis, could beuseful not only in cystic fibrosis   but in other disease process whichhave chronic inflammation as their prime manifestation (viz Type Idiabetes mellitus or inflammatory bowel disease) (Egan, M et al 1992).These manifestations have been studied and have now reached the stageof early clinical trials (Wagner J et al 2002). With specific reference to the implications of cystic fibrosis, wecan point to trials which have resulted in the expression of cysticfibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) from rAAV(recombinant adeno-associated vectors) in cell cultures (Flotte, TR etal 1993), in animal models (primates) (Afione, SA et al 1996), andagain in early phase I clinical trials (Wagner, J et al 1998) The rAAV-IL-10 model has been studied in bronchial cell culturesfrom cystic fibrosis patients, to determine the functional consequencesof CFTR complementation. This has not yet been demonstrated in vivowith humans but in both mice (Song, S et al 1998), and monkeys (Conrad,CK et al 1996) The overall results of these (and other) studies have shown that   itis possible to achieve long term gene transfer and functionalexpression of the replaced gene (some studies for as long as 18 months)without any overt pathological findings. The histological findings are something of a surprise however, as,at least in both primate and mouse studies, the vector-introduced DNAin this form does not appear to be assimilated into the geneticmaterial of the chromosome, but persists in log strings or concatemersthat are episomal, which is in complete contrast to what happens whenthe naturally occurring agent infects the cell. There is some evidenceto suggest that host cell intrinsic factors such as DNA-dependentprotein kinase play some role in this process (Song, S 2001). The significance of this finding could be that the exclusion of thefunctional, newly introduced DNA from the rest of the nuclear gene poolmay be less likely to produce effects that could be either potentiallydisruptive to the host cell and less likely to activate oncogenes.Phase I trials have demonstrated significant rises of CFTR levels inboth sinus and lung tissue with no evidence of vector-related toxicity.(Wagner, JA et al 1999)   The adeno-associated vectors are constructed from proviraladeno-associated vectors plasmids, which have the Rep and Cap proteinsdeleted and substituting the appropriate gene (CFTR or equivalent)between the rAAV2 inverted terminal repeats together with other signalsequences such as promoter and polyadenylation sequences (Flotte, TR etal 1994) The packaging processes allows for about 5 kb of rAAV genomes to becarried   in the vectors which are prepared using a cotransfectiontechnique utilising human embryonic kidney cells (HEK-293) where thevector plasmid is cotransfected into the cells with helper agents(plasmid pDG) being used to encode the rAAV2-rep and -cap genestogether with the adenovirus helper functions (Grimm, D et al 1998).These are incubated for between 48 and 72 hrs. The cells are then lysedand the resultant agents are then separated by ultracentrifugationagainst a density gradient and affinity chromatography (Zolotukhin, Set al 1999).   The vectors are thereby amenable to being separated by both theirphysical characteristics and also their biological characteristics(infectious units). They are carefully screened to ensure the absenceof any possible contamination from non-modified (replication competentAAVs) prior to clinical usage. (Muzyczka N 1994) The comparatively small â€Å"payload† of the adeno-associated vectorsis proving to be a significant problem. The vector itself is small whencompared to the comparatively large size of the CFTR gene. (Flotte TRet al 1993) It does not leave any room to manoeuvre to manipulate thevector-specific sequences in the way that we have described with theretroviral and adenoviral groups. (Flotte TR et al 2001). A number of authors have characterised the problem with theobservation that the rAAV is typically about 20 nm across which allowspackaging of about 4.7 kb (kilobases) of transferable modified gene(exogenous DNA). (Dong JY et al 1996), If   it is combined with otherenhancers such as the promoter, the polyadenylation signal, thisclearly reduces the capacity for the DNA component. (Duan D et al2000). The Yan paper (Yan Z et al 2000) has outlined a novelexploitation of the unique ability of the rAAV genomes to link togetherin strings which appears to have the ability to bypass this particularlimitation.( Flotte TR 2000). The mechanism itself is the capacity of two distinct rAAV genomes thathappen to simultaneously infect the same target cell to undergo anintermolecular recombination insider the transduced nucleus of thetarget cell. This was a chance finding which arose from work involvingrAAV-derived episomes (Kearns WG et al 1996) in primate airways. It wasfound that some of these episomes were configured as circular head totail concatemers (Duan D et al 1999). This could have been either froma â€Å"rolling circle† replication from a single vector or alternatively,from an intermolecular recombination of material from multiple cellularpenetrations which combined within the palindromic inverted terminalrepeat sequences that are an intrinsic part of the AAV genomestructure. The authors were of the opinion that it was likely to be thelatter eventuality (Duan D et al 1998) It was a logical progression to try to exploit this phenomenon andthereby bypass the limitations imposed by the relatively smallpackaging capacity of rAAV. The adeno-associated vectors capsid onlyhas a capacity of about 5 kb. If we consider that the 145 nucleotidestretch of the AAV-ITR (inverted terminal repeat) sequence has to be inplace at both ends of the single-strand DNA for the vector DNA to beboth replicated and packaged, this only leaves in the region of 4.7 kbof genetically active material in each rAAV particle. As we have cited earlier in relation to the Dong paper (Dong JY et al1996) the CFTR gene accounts for about 4.5 kb which leaves very littlespace for other enhancing material. Because of this, the actual CFTRvector that has been used in the clinical trials to date uses only theminimal promoter activity of the AAVs-ITR itself to actually activateand drive the CFTR expression (Flotte TR et al. 1993). To look at this potentially important development in a little moredetail we can consider Duan’s original paper (et al 2000) and theauthors describe what they call a â€Å"superenhancer†. They describe acombination of a potent simian virus (SV40) and CMV immediate earlyenhancer elements as being packaged in one rAAV vector and a luciferasegene assisted by a small minima;l promoter in another rAAV vector. Invitro experiments suggested that either the SV40 or the intrinsicpromoter activity of the AAV-ITR was sufficient for this purpose. Theintermolecular recombination described above, was found to occur inboth vitro and in vivo experiments and was found to be sufficient tohave a greater than additive effect. Initial results from these varying methods are encouraging insofaras they are producing results of transgene expression which are 100-600times greater than with the unenhanced vector alone. (Yan, Z et al2000) Although not directly referable to our considerations of cysticfibrosis, we should note that Yan’s group and other workers have doneexperimental work which has culminated in the long term expression offunctional levels of erythropoetin with this two vector method in micein vivo. (Naffakh N et al 1995), This basic principle has been further enhanced by Sun (Sun L et al2000) with an ingenious manipulation of the system. They triedinserting the promoter and the first half of the coding sequence in onerAAV vector, immediately followed by a splice donor and then theupstream half of an intron. In the other rAAV vector was the downstreamhalf of the intron, the splice acceptor, the second half of the geneand the polyadenylation signal. To quote the author verbatim: This strategy is efficient enough to mediate high-level expressionand the intermolecular junctions are apparently stable enough tomediate expression for several months in vivo. Although this is clearly an ingenious augmentation of the sameprinciple , we should note that there are both advantages anddisadvantages to both pathways. The strategy that adopts the superenhancer takes its strengths fromthe fact that the recombination mechanisms optimise theposition-independent and orientation-independent functions of theenhancers.   Consideration of the options would suggest that there arefour potential recombination outcomes from the process described.Either of the two vectors could be on the 5’ end of the heterodimericmolecule and clearly either molecule could be in either orientation. With the superenhancer option, all four of these possibleintermolecular recombination outcomes should be functional fortransgene expression whereas if compared to the split intron strategy,by using the same reasoning, it is clear that only one out of the fourcould work. On the other side of the argument, the superenhancer option has thedisadvantage that the actual coding sequence of the gene to betransferred must still fall within the packaging capacity of the vectoritself whereas the split intron allows for a greater functionalexpansion of the packaging capacity. (after Flotte TR et al 2000)   In either event it can be seen that these ingenious modificationseffectively eliminate the main size limitation of the rAAV deliverysystem. Although initial pre-clinical work is encouraging it appearsthat there is still some potential for a degree of immune responseparticularly if the host organism has not experienced the newlyproduced protein before. A number of studies have been done on animal (vertebrate andprimate) with only minimal success. Different administration methodshave been studied including direct administration into the lung (WagnerJ et al 1999), IM injection (Song, S et al 2001 B) and hepatic portalvein infusion (Song, S et al 2001 A)       Human clinical trials have taken place with these vectors (Flotte T etal 1996)(Wagner J et al 1998) (Virella-Lowell, I et al 2000). Thestudies were done on adult male and female patients (18-47 yrs) whowere pseudomonas free and had recently been hospitalised for IVantibiotic infusions The disappointing results were probably a reflection of the factthat the CFTR defect is also interconnected in some way with   aproinflammatory phenotype which appears to be triggered by the abnormalprotein via an unfolded protein response. The authors were able to showevidence that the rAAV-CFTR mechanism was able to   correct the proteinproduction defect, they found it clinically difficult to transduce asufficient number of cells in the airway to reverse the inflammatoryresponse. It is proposed to run further experimental work which combines the  CFTR expression with an anti inflammatory   gene such as the IL-10.There is some in vitro work to suggest that this may be a possibleworkable approach (Teramoto, S et al 1998). Other work on ways ofenhancing the phenotypic expression of the modified genotype hassuggested that the use of various promoters and the rAAV-CMV/beta-actinhybrid promoter (CB-AAT) was found to be tone of the most efficient, atleast when it was compared to the other tested options such as the CMV,E1, U1a and U1b promoter constructs (Teramoto, S et al 1998) Overall, the initial results appear to be encouraging. A singleinjection of an rAAV-CB-AAT vector in animal studies has resulted inhigh level, stable transgene expression which has persisted over thelife span of the experimental animals and that there was no detectableinflammatory response in the animals who had received this form oftreatment (Flotte TR 2002) Flotte (et al 2002) reports that four human clinical trials at bothPhase I and Phase II level are currently underway examining the effectsof the rAAV-CFTR vector. They had an entry cohort of seven patientswith the vector being applied to the nasal lining, the maxillary sinusand the bronchus. The authors report no adverse effects being found andthat they have observed transgene expression at doses of 6 x 108 drp inthe sinus or 1 x 1013 drp in the lung. There are no reported interimfindings from the Phase II trials as yet.    There is clearly a potential for clinical benefit on the basis of theresults found to date if one can extrapolate from in vitro and animalexperiments. The authors comment that, in contrast to the adenovirusvectors there is a marked lack of inflammatory toxicity with the rAAVvectors. Despite these positive comments, we should not, however, overlook thepotential limitations of this particular delivery system. These havebeen identified by various authors as:    The inhibitory effect of preexisting airway inflammation on rAAV transduction in the lungs (Virella-Lowell, I et al 2000) A relative paucity of receptors on the apical surface of airway epithelial cells (Summerford, C et al 1998), The relatively weak nature of the minimal promoters used in the first-generation rAAV-CFTR vectors(Flotte, TR et al 1993), The potential for adverse long-term effects from rAAV vector DNA persistence. (Wu, P et al 2000) The Flotte group are currently investigating this problem by examiningthe hypothesis that the barriers in the airways of the cystic fibrosissufferer are primarily   due to the neutrophil-derived -defensins (HNP1and HNP2) and are actually reversible by the mechanism of AAT proteindelivery (Virella-Lowell, I 2000) Wu and his co-workers have been looking at ways of manipulating thegenetic make up of the rAAV2 capsid and thereby trying to enhance thetargeting ability so that the vector specifically targets the serpinenzyme complex receptor on IB3–1 cells – which is virtually specificfor the Cystic fibrosis bronchial cells Zabner, J (et al 2000), have considered alternative rAAV serotypesin the hope of finding one that will bind more specifically to thebronchial cells Other peripheral adjuncts have also been explored includingpromoters to enhance the effects of complementation and superenhancerswhich have been shown to improve the ability of the rAAV toconcatermerise with the help of smaller amounts of promoter agents  (Duan, D et al 2000). Perhaps it is appropriate to conclude this section on considerationof adeno-associated vectors with a critical analysis of a very recentmulticentre, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial (Moss RB et al2004) This was a well constructed, fully statistically significant anddouble blinded trial which considered   both the safety and thetolerability of repeated doses of adeno-associated serotype 2 vectorrepeatedly given by aerosol inhalation. The vector contained â€Å"cysticfibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) complementary DNA(cDNA) [tgAAVCF], an adeno-associated virus (AAV) vector encoding thecomplete human CFTR cDNA.† The entry cohort was comparatively small with 42 patients, of whom20 received the active agent. A number of indices of airway functionwere measured. Of particular interest to our considerations in thisdissertation was the fact that   vector shedding was found in alltreated subjects up to 90 days after inoculation. And that all subjectswho received the active agent exhibited at least a fourfold increase inthe serum AAV2 neutralising antibody levels. Of the 20 treated patients, six subsequently underwent bronchoscopy.Of those six, gene transfer but not gene expression was demonstrated inall of them. On this basis, it would appear that the actual transfermechanism is effective, but there are other factors present whichappear to interfere with the subsequent expression of the gene in termsof protein production. The study did not comment on the possiblereasons for this. The authors were able to conclude that the delivery system workedwell with no evidence of adverse effects and that treated patientsdemonstrated an â€Å"encouraging trend in improvement in pulmonary functionin patients with CF and mild lung disease.† Lipid 67 We have discussed the various shortcomings of the virus-associatedvectors and this has prompted researchers to explore and consider otheroptimising options for facilitating gene transfer. Zabner (J et al1997) considered the use of cationic lipids in this process and foundone   GL-67:DOPE (colloquially known as lipid 67) which appeared to beparticularly helpful in the process. Cationic lipids appear to show a degree of promise as possible vectorsfor CFTR cDNA transfer into respiratory epithelial cells

Family and Household Essay -- essays research papers fc

Family and Household   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The word family comes from the Latin word familia which means household. This seems to be fitting since they both seem synonymous. In the dictionary the definition of family is a group of individuals living under one roof and usually under one head or a group of persons of common ancestry. The definition of household is those who dwell under the same roof and compose a family or a social unit comprised of those living together in the same dwelling. Even the definitions are very similar, yet they have come to mean two very different things in our modern day world. As time evolves so does the clarity of what makes up a family and the function of family and household are.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã¢â‚¬Å"Families are affected by, and in turn affect, the values and structure of the society, in which they are embedded† (Haviland 2002: 245). This statement says so much about what families are and why they differ so much from one culture to the next. They fill the needs of each particular group. In America the â€Å"family† has changed dramatically over the past few decades as the country, itself, has changed. In the 1950’s and sixties the roles of each member of the family were more distinct and defined. The mother and the father were a married couple who stayed together. The mother did not work outside of the home, except in extreme circumstances or cases. She took care of the children and the home. The father was the â€Å"bread winner† and did very little work inside the home. Today most families either have both parents working or they are single parent families, or families divided by divorce. The changes to what comprises our f amilies have also evolved to included families with gay parents; having either two mothers or two fathers or combined families from re-marriages with step-parents and siblings. In these families their function is one of raising independent children who will grow up to become better than the generation before them. And in many cases they also function as an emotional and monetary support for each other; helping each other to obtain their goals of independence.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In many other cultures their definition of what a family is very different of that of Americans. In most of these cultures family provides a more important role, one of survival. These family groups usually co... ...alue along with what is irrelevant. Our families provide us with the necessary tools to survive and keep our people going from one generation to the next. I have learned that the definitions of family and household are broad and diverse and that to know one does not mean you know another. What makes up either one of these two things is all about the culture and the society that we live in. But, it also made me realize that no matter how divergent our families and households are they all seem to fulfill the same basic need of survival. We just go about it in different ways. So, no matter where you live or who you live with you are still just learning how to live and that is what we all have in common.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Works Cited Abrams, I.R., & Bishop, J. (Producers). (1994). â€Å"Family and Household,† Faces   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  of Culture [videotape]. Fountain Valley: Coast Community College   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  District. Haviland, William A. (2002) Cultural Anthropology. Forth Worth: Harcourt   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  College Publishers.

Human societies Essay

In understanding human beings and human societies, no subject is more important than social stratification and its relationship with wages. A system of social stratification helps shape how people live, their opportunities for a better life, their mental health and how long they will live. Generally it is a system of social stratification has an important influence on events like wages, unemployment and inflation. Most people know that some people are rich and some are poor, but people in general are usually not aware of the systematic social forces that create the outcome of where they are placed on the ladder or why they are paid what they are. Most believe they take what they get. This type of belief is strong among the nonpoor and white of the United States and in recent times with immigration. Employers of immigrants will pay less, even less than minimum wages because of that person is illegal. Most people are unaware of the fact that some individuals have more influence than others that can shape the general social welfare. Those people usually are the least aware of how a system of stratification forms the basis for these influences and this is a possible factor in why wages follows social stratification differences. To begin we need to define the difference between social differential and social stratification. Social differential is a necessary precondition for social stratification. Social differential is the distinct individual qualities and social roles. This is very important when looking at reasons for unequal pay in American Society. People are differentiated by biological characteristics such as sex, size, strength, and agility. In every society they are differentiated by social roles, work tasks, or occupations. Some people do the hunting others chop wood and others care for children or gather plants. As societies become more complex technologically, the division of labor increases the number of tasks, occupations, and roles will grow too. An increased division of labor means more differentiation. Several arguments for unequal pay include the differences between men and women as reasons. It stated that women live longer than men so they should be paid less to balance this out. Another said that women were more likely to have tardiness and absences which added to labor cost and in order to balance this out women are paid less. Health care and medical insurance costs needs to become more balanced because women live longer and can become pregnant life (Barber, 1957). Social inequality is the condition that people have unequal access to valued resources, services and positions in the society. Such inequality can come in terms of wages and how individuals or groups are themselves ranked and evaluated by others most importantly; social inequality in wages is related to differing positions in a social structure. Social inequality often rises from social differentiation for two reasons. First because of the human capacity to apply meaning to events and things and to develop judgment of what is good or bad, social evaluation is often applied to differences. This could explain why the wages are unequal across the board. Individual characteristics and different positions or roles may be valued unequally or ranked from superior to inferior that is why social inequality is looked at in terms of prestige or honor for more pay. Inequality may rise from social differentiation because of some roles or social positions place some people in a position to acquire a greater share of valued goods, services and pay (Giddins & Held, 1982). Two of the most important types of inequality are inequalities of income and wealth. These two are of major importance because it is income and wealth that bring other valued goods and services, not to mention the basic necessities of life. Income and wealth are generalized commodities that depending upon the quantity and how they are used by bring power and influence. By income I mean money, wages and payments that are timely made and received as returns from a job or investment. Income is usually the means by which most Americans obtain the necessities and simple luxuries of life. A wage or salary, rather than investments, is what sustains the vast majority of people in this country. Wealth is accumulated assets in the form of various types of valued goods. Wealth is anything of economic value that is bought and sold. Most Americans have little or no wealth, whatever they have gotten in the form of wages and salaries cannot be saved because it must be used for immediate necessities. Income is distributed in a highly unequal manner in this country, but wealth is distributed even more unevenly (Liao, 2006). The majority of people in this country must depend upon some type of employment for their income and the occupational structure is of primary importance in creating this unequal distribution of income. Part of the inequity between men and women is due to simple sexism. The standard of living and real income of people in the United States have generally increased over the years. But the distribution of total income has remained stable since the middle 1940’s. There is data showing that income inequality was reduced somewhat during the 1930’s and early 1940’s due to Depression reforms and full employment during World War II. Among noncommunist industrial nations the United States can generally be ranked about midway in terms of income inequality. France is the highest amount of income inequality(Barber, 1957). The most commonly recognized class inequality is income. The usual assumption is that working class people receive below average incomes, the middle class receives average incomes, and the upper middle class professionals and managers receive above average to high incomes. The more traditional assumptions about class income inequalities are much closer to the truth. This is the belief that working class people have made substantial income gains relative to the middle class is incorrect because of two facts. That high working class incomes are not your typical income and also that even though some blue collar workers pay is high it is usually because of it being seasonal or insecure (Giddins & Held, 2006). There is no simple explanation between income and class position because of the many variables that help determine income attainment. The first problem has been that in the past occupational status or occupational skill level alone was assumed to indicate class position. There is no argument that much of the income inequality between men and women or whites and minorities can be explained by the historical conditions of racism and sexism in our society. But much of this race and sex discrimination operates through the established class system. Income inequality in general is related to positions within authority structures. So if we find sex and race differences in relation to these other factors affecting income inequality in general we have located other sources of sex and race inequality operating through the class system (Hulme & Toye, 2006). The main point is that race and sex income inequality is explained by class, although racism and sexism do play a part. Race and sex inequality are in large part class issues and operate through class divisions made up of occupational, authority, and property divisions in the overall system of stratification in this country. As with income the condition of work is stratified. Those on top are generally better off, while those in the middle can look down upon those at the bottom with a feeling that their own condition could be worse. Income inequalities, job satisfaction, conditions of work, and different amounts of political and economic power are the most important consequences of class in the United States (Rimashevskaia & Kislitsyna, 2006). A central belief in the conflict perspective of social stratification is that groups with strong common interests will work together to ensure that these common interests are attained and maintained. This is true for groups on the bottom as well as for those on top. But this is only true to the extent that a group with common interests is able to recognize its common interests, and has resources with which to gain it common interest. Those on the top of the stratification system are usually able to have both of what was mentioned. But those that are below the top are usually powerless, passive or non participants in the conflict process of reward distribution in the society (Barber, 1957). The global view of social stratification shows that it is in many ways similar to domestic systems of stratification. There are some differenced between the two types of systems. For one the phenomenon of nationalism can produce less international class unity and more of an overt class conflict between the core and the outside. It is more difficult to maintain the world stratification system through ideological justifications because of cultural differences and communication differences. But it can be seen as a property structure and occupational division of labor that stretches around the globe that isn’t related to bureaucratic authority structures. One should note that it isn’t the differences domestically and globally on social stratification it is the similarities that are surprising (Hulme & Toye, 2006). Works Cited: Barber, Bernard. Social Stratification a Comparative Analysis of Structure and Process, New York: Harcourt, (1957). Giddins, Anthony & Held, David. Classes, Power and Conflict: Classical and Contemporary debates. Berkeley: University of California Press, (1982). Hulme, David, & Toye, John. â€Å"The Case for Cross Disciplinary Social Science Research on Poverty, Inequality and well being. † Journal of Development Studies 42. 7 (October 2006): 1085-1107. Liao, Tim. â€Å"Measuring and Analyzing class Inequality with the Gini Index Informed by Model-Based Clustering. † Sociological Methodology 36. 1 (2006): 201-224. Rimashevskaia, N. M. & Kislitsyna, O. A. â€Å"Income Inequality and Health. † Sociological Research 45. 3 (May/June, 1006): 43-62.

On the Neglect of Human Emotion in Paradise Lost Essays

On the Neglect of Human Emotion in Paradise Lost Essays On the Neglect of Human Emotion in Paradise Lost Essay On the Neglect of Human Emotion in Paradise Lost Essay Essay Topic: Invisible Man Paradise Paradise Lost On the Neglect of Human Emotion in Paradise Lost: A Rebuttal Within Virginia Wolfs letter and diary entry, she discusses her thoughts on John Millions writing style within Paradise Lost, and reveals her feeling that Milton, while clearly an expert of literary description, does very little to touch upon human passions and emotion within his poem. Upon reading Paradise Lost, it is clear that Wolf has a point; extravagant descriptions of heaven, hell, angels and God abound within the epic, but instances of human sentiment are more difficult to come across. Wolf goes as far as to say that Milton entirely neglects the human heart. While Wolfs statement is not entirely accurate, Millions ornate images and accounts of venerated deities waging war against sinister demonic entities certainly may appear detached and daunting upon first glance; but after an assiduous perusal of the epic, indications of humanistic emotion within the text become apparent. Despite Millions frequent emotionally distant descriptions, within certain points within the poem emotion does manage to percolate through Millions scholarly poetic portrayals. The rarity of these scenes make them all the more poignant, although one may have to analyze the specific meaning of what Milton is saying in certain lines in order to completely comprehend the sentimentality behind what he writes. Though Milton may remain relatively impersonal throughout his poem, the central themes and the characters contained within it say a lot about Millions personal beliefs; this is particularly evident in his characters soliloquies and discussions. Satan in particular serves to portray certain aspects of Millions principles that make it clear that human lining is not left entirely out of the equation for the author. One instance of personal emotion Milton allows to escape within Paradise Lost is found within the second invocation in the poem, in the beginning of Book Ill. Within this passage, Milton is invoking holy light and asking that this light shine through his mind and allow him to see and tell / Of things invisible to mortal sight! Milton also makes references in this passage to his loss of vision, describing other prophets and poets who were also struck with blindness. One of Millions critics states that There is much to be said for eating Milton less as thesis driven and more as one who worked and worried over the things he wrote, finally leaving many decisions to the reader (Grossman, 264). The viewpoint Grossman suggests is an ideal one to take while considering this particular passage; it is easy to get absorbed in the historical backgrounds or mythological allusions behind what Milton is writing and forget to consider the state of mind Milton was in while writing instead. While some of the lines within the invocation still hold the aloof, pretentiously scholarly air Milton assumes throughout ouch of Paradise Lost, a particular cluster of lines allow the reader to feel some of the grief Milton holds concerning his lack of sight. He writes Thus with the year / Seasons return but not to me returns / Day or the sweet approach of even or morn / Or sight of vernal bloom or summers rose / Or flocks or herds or human face divine / men / Cut off and, for the book of knowledge fair, / Presented with a universal blank / Of natures works to me expunged and razed / And wisdom at one entrance quite shut out (3. (:)-50). These lines are particularly emotional; not only do they outline pacific sights Milton will never again be able to lay his eyes upon, but they also inadvertently address a sense of vulnerability Milton feels because of his inability to read to obtain knowledge. Further information about Millions personal life makes these lines all the more meaningf ul- Milton read voraciously in many different languages during his youth, and many scholars agree that he read literally everything available worldwide until he lost his sight. Combine this information with the idea that suddenly, Milton has found himself completely incapable of reading things for myself, and the words wisdom at one entrance quite shut out suddenly hold a new sense of tragedy. Milton had found himself drastically weakened intellectually, and shares his inner struggle with the reader within these few lines. Yet Wolf states within her letter, Has any great poem ever let in so little light upon ones own Joys and sorrows? Perhaps Wolf never considered the idea that Milton used his expansive academic familiarity within Paradise Lost to make up for the helplessness he felt in this regard. Millions description of the events within Paradise Lost may be one in an undeniably imaginative, but nevertheless, dry and studious manner in order to prove that he will not forget his years of study merely because he has lost the ability to acquire further knowledge. Milton unquestionably lets light in upon his own Joys and sorrows within this passage; his request for the celestial light to shine inwards (3. 52) and illuminate his mind in order for him to better tell his story should be one Wolf is especially familiar with as a contemporary British author. Wolfs own works, along with the primary viewpoints on literature at the time, often center round the idea of a turning inwards within oneself. Milton simply employs this inward turning to better tell his grandiose story of mankinds fall from Paradise, instead of focusing on a realistic viewpoint of the inner turmoil found within everyday individuals as Wolf chose to (Matt, 63). Another example of emotion seeping through Millions verbose prose is found within Satins soliloquy in Book IV, shortly before he enters Paradise. Satan speaks at length within this passage about why he has left Heaven and forsaken God despite his status as a high angel, and a assign Wolf claims in her writings is nonexistent within Millions epic is plain within Satins speech. Satan admits freely that what God asked for him to do- namely, to praise Gods name and thank Him for all He had done- was not a difficult task; he says What could be less than to afford him praise, / The easiest recompense, and pay Him thanks? How due (4. 45-46)! Nevertheless, Satan rebels against these requests, longing to be quit / The debt immense of endless gratitude / So burdensome-still paying! Still to owe (4. 51-53)! Satan seems to have believed that if e could have only reached one step above God, he would be relieved of this hefty burden of owing God for his creation. Satan even admits that [God] deserved no such return / From me, whom He created what I was (4. 42-43), a statement that shows that even the devil has doubts about why he should st rive to do evil to one who is such a powerful force for good. The fiend portrays regret even further in lines 79 and 80 in Book l. Ft, he says Is there no place / Left for repentance, none for pardon refuses to submit for dread of shame (4. 82) from the lesser demons that followed IM in his revolt against God. Later on in this same passage, Satan admits that God would be as unlikely to forgive him as Satan would be to ask to be forgiven, because he would be certain to end up with a worse relapse / And heavier fall (4. 99-100). As a character, Satan is noticeably conflicted at certain points within the text about combating God. Because of Satins knowledge that he could neither be forgiven nor ask for forgiveness, he must give up on all hope- So farewell hope and with hope farewell fear! / Farewell remorse! All good to me is lost. Evil, be thou my good. 4. 107-109. ). Though at first glance Satins statements read as a triumphant exclamation of Satins embrace of evil, upon careful consideration, one can see the sense of loss Satan feels here. By saying he will lose all that is good in exchange for evil, Satan unintentionally admits that he felt hope and fear at one point, and deemed them beneficial emotions at the time. Millions personification of Satan in this particular soliloquy has Satan struggling through a range of emotions- regret, doubt, longing, fear, vanity, despair and anger are all evident within his speech. But spite the ardent range of feeling Satan exhibits, Wolf endorses the idea that Paradise Lost is made up entirely of sublime aloofness and impersonality of the emotions. While evidences of the aloofness and impersonality Wolf speaks of are easy to find throughout the text- for an example, consider the tediously academic descriptions of demonic entities found throughout lines 381 to 521 in Book I- a single example of passionate emotion within Millions poem completely derails her argument that there is no emotion to be found whatsoever. Here, two simple examples of emotion to be found early on in Paradise Lost have already been scribed, but that does not mean that these are the only examples of emotion Milton employs. Satins uncertain but fervent feelings are a supremely obvious demonstration of these, but Millions descriptions of God also portray the authors personal emotions, though in a much more subtle manner. In Book Ill of Paradise Lost, God explains why he created Adam and Eve despite being omniscient and entirely aware of their inevitable fall. He states that Freely they stood who stood and fell who fell, telling the Son that He gave all of his creations the ability to stand if hey so choose and the free will to fall if they chose to fall instead. God seems to spend the majority of Book Ill explaining and defending himself, an action one would not consider typical of a deity. This explanation is Milton speaking through his character about his individual reasoning of why God would chose to allow these circumstances to occur despite being all-powerful and all-knowing. Though the entire conversation between God, the Son and the angels is written using the same wonderful, beautiful, and masterly descriptions of angels bodies, battles, flights, welling places that Wolf describes, that does not mean that the conversation says nothing of the human heart. Instead, Milton uses the character of God to discreetly deliver a message that speaks to his own heart, and provide a defensive point for a common argument made against Millions faith in God. Milton also uses elaborate imagery through his epic to set a sort of stage in his readers heads, allowing the reader to envision characters based on their descriptions within the poem and using these visions to evoke emotion from these theatrical visualization (Bradbury, 78). In perspectives. Those familiar with John Millions life will recall Sensationalist, a controversial pamphlet he produced in 1649 arguing that regicide is acceptable when dealing with an oppressive monarch (Beer, 247). The arguments contained within Millions pamphlet are echoed in Satins speech about Gods domination of Heaven in lines 84 through 124 during Book l. Satan says That glory never shall His wrath or might / Extort from me: to bow and sue for grace / With suppliant knee and deify His poor (1. 110-113) in a direct exclamation of resistance to the idea of leading to a dictatorial power, then goes on to say that their grand Foe (1 . 22) Sole reigning holds the tyranny of Heaven (1. 124). To the informed reader, Satins statement clearly reiterates Millions own ideas about a cruel autocrat. Evidently Milton did not agree with the idea that God himself should be seen as a tyrant, as He granted us free will, but Satins imperfect viewpoint of God nevertheless reflects the authors hatred of tyranny. An argument could be made that the same understated meaning Milton uses in his depiction of God and within Satins speech in Book I is seed throughout the entire text. After all, Milton assigns a specific meaning and motive to each character that is entirely original and a product of his own thoughts. Clearly someone who goes to such drastic measures to employ layers of historical and literary depth in his descriptions would not neglect the formulation of ideas that make up the chief narrative within the story. Upon thoughtful consideration of the central themes within the plot of Paradise Lost, it is evident that Milton has carefully poured his own heart, along with years of study, experience, and faith, into his poem.

Waves in physics Essay Example

Waves in physics Essay Example Waves in physics Essay Waves in physics Essay Application of different type of waves in medicine Assessment type(s): MAP Criteria: A: One world, B: Communication in science Word count: 1000+ Explain the use of different waves in medicine. Your essay should: -explains how different type of waves are used to diagnose / cure different diseases. -discusses the effectiveness of science and its application in solving the problem or issue. -discusses and evaluates the implications of the use and application of science interacting with at least two of the following factors: moral, ethical, social, economic, political, cultural and environmental. You should also: -use sufficient scientific language correctly. -communicate scientific information effectively. -fully documents sources of information correctly, appropriate to the task The application of waves in medicine: Shock wave: Shock wave is one of the wave which is used in medicines. This wave was introduced 20 years ago. This application changed the treatment of Urologists. The formation of stony concretions in the bladder or urinary tract. Shock waves can treat kidney and urethral stones. Shock waves have also been used to treat fractures. The concept of orthopedic is that the shock wave reactivates healing, surrounding tissue and bones, by micro disruption which means disorder of vascular tissues to grow on local bases. It basically helps in healing and recovering tissues. Radio wave: We have learned about the understanding of radio waves by the experiments of Hertz. Radio waves are used to transfer the pattern of a patients heartbeat by a monitor to a patients home or to a nearby hospital. They are also used to convey the condition of a patient from an ambulance to a hospital so that they are ready for the tangents emergency. Radio waves are used in medicine when paramedics who is a person trained to do medical work are connected to the scene where they are to do for the upcoming patient. Electromagnetic wave: Electromagnetic waves are produced by the motion of electrically charged particles. These waves are also called electromagnetic radiation because they radiate from the electrically charged particles. They travel through empty space as well as through air and other substances. Electromagnetic waves at low frequencies are referred to as electromagnetic fields and those at very high frequencies are called electromagnetic radiations. Electromagnetic wave plays a big major role in daily life. Electromagnetic waves are used in communications, radio and television broadcasting, cellular networks and indoor wireless systems. From the results of innovations, the use of this field is very high as people prefer more of new technologies now a day. The increasing number of mobile phones users rise significant concerns due to its potential damage on people exposed by radionuclide waves. Since mobile phones are used in positions very close to the human body and require a large number of base station antennas, the public and the scientists have doubts on its damages on human body. Ultra sound: In sound waves, waves are send into bodies and are reflected back at the interface between tissues. The time taken by the waves to reflect and return tells the depth of the reflected area. The research for sound wave went across human life and had affected since the world war 2 when the research was being done during the war of sound negotiation and ranging. In sasss for gray scale images, in 1965 for real time imaging. And today used in medical imaging. Sound waves have two types of waves, specula which means reflection from large surface and scattered which means reflection from small surface. Ultra sound waves are used as medicines as it captures the internal organs and structures . Ultra sonic waves: The application of ultrasonic wave in medicine is that it used n x-rays and magnetic imaging. Among the various modern techniques for the imaging of internal organs, ultrasonic machines like x ray are very expensive including its treatment. Ultrasound is also used for treating Joint pains and for treating certain types of tumors for which the mentioned problems are heated. A very effective use of ultrasound deriving from its nature as a mechanical vibration is the elimination of kidney and bladder. One of the important advantages of ultrasound is that it is a mechanical vibration. It can also be used in places where x-ray is damaging. Ultrasound, on the other hand, gives good contrast between various types of soft tissue. All the included waves have advantages and are helpful in humans daily life. Some waves are also lawful in places where other medical machines are dangerous like ultrasonic waves instead of x-rays. Application of these waves also helps in economic development as more and more patients will do their surgery through these waves in medicine. Bibliography: Medical Physics Ultrasound. (n. D. ). Genesis Networks. Retrieved September 15, 2013, from Genesis. Net. AU/?a]s/pro]sects/medical ultrasonic (physics) : Medical applications Encyclopedia Britannica. (n. D. ). Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved ultrasonic/64038/Medical-applications Shock wave treatment in medicine. J Bios. 2005] Pumped INCUBI. (n. D. ). National Center for Biotechnology Information. Retrieved September 1 5, 2013, from Incubi. Ml. NIH. Gob/pumped/15933416 Radio. (n. D. ). Saint Mars Roman Catholic Church I Saint Mars Roman Catholic Church. Retrieved September 15, 2013, from Starry. Was/highlights/ physics/radio_l ultrasonic (physics) : Medical applications Encyclopedia Britannica. (n. D. ). Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved September 15, 2013, from http:// www. Britannica. Com/Upchucked/topic/613488/ultrasonic/64038/Medical-applications

Rococo style in 1700s fashion Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Rococo style in 1700s fashion - Essay Example Magazines that emerged catered to the curiosity of the lower class as their attention was captured by the colorful illustrations and the latest news. This is the period that saw the development of panniers, a new silhouette for women worn under the skirts and extended sideways (Heinrich, 2014). The waists were constricted by corsets which were a big contract to the wide skirts that usually opened at the front showing an underskirt. The Watteau gown is one of the dresses worn during this period, with a loose back that became part of a full skirt with a tighter bodice. The gowns were worn with short wide lapelled jackets. The introduction of a loose wide gown with a colorful silk sash around the waist was considered a shock for women as the natural figure was apparent and no corset was worn. However, this was seen by the women as a symbol of their increased liberation and they embraced the style (Heinrich, 2014). Heels worn by women became smaller by design with slimmer heels and pretty decorations as hair was worn higher contrary to the beginning where it was worn tight to the head, topped with lace handkerchiefs to contrast the wide panniers. The towering tresses of hair were often curled and decorated with feathers, flowers, sculptures or figures. As the style progressed, hair was powdered with meal and flour causing a burst of outrage in the lower classes because of the subsequent rice in price of bread. Designs worn by men only had variations in the coat, waistcoat and the breeches, with the waistcoat being the most decorative piece. They were lavishly embroidered or having huge displays of patterned fabrics. The breeches were topped around the knees and white stockings worn underneath with large square buckled heeled shoes. The coats on the other hand were often worn close to the body and lacked the earlier skirt-like design, worn with a more open air to showcase the elaborate waistcoat (Heinrich, 2014). Men also adapted to wearing white wigs

Analyze one of the book themes at play in John Demos's The Unredeemed Essay

Analyze one of the book themes at play in John Demos's The Unredeemed Captive - Essay Example The story starts with a reason that further leads to the cultural integration suitable to the situation. It’s a story of abduction and adoption by Indians of the American settlers (Sweeney 32). The Mohawk Indians are assisted by the French in Canada. They together attempt to attack a small village with name of Deerfield located in Massachusetts. They had targeted revered John Williams, the than Minister from Deerfield because they intended they get their man, with the name of Jean Baptist Gayen rescued in return, who had been held from Boston. Two of John William’s kids were murdered the night of the kidnap and the rest of the family was moved to Canada along with a number of other captives who were also taken up from Deerfield for the same cause of personal gain. John Williams’s family saw this event highly distressful and damaging. They kept very little hope of getting to see each other ever again. John William manages to break through the hostage couple of yea rs later. He remarries another lady after back home and recollects his shattered life to give it a new start. His rest of the children were also set free, leaving behind his daughter, Eunice Williams in their custody. The story majorly revolves around her and the way she chooses to built her life with the Native Americans willingly, once she experiences growing up amongst them. John Williams, the famous Revered of Deerfield is illustrated by John Demos to get stunned and spell bound by the choices his daughter, Eunice is shown to make for herself. After being left alone to live amongst them she has no other option rather than to settle herself with their norms and culture. She was at the age seven when she got taken up the Native Americans. In the early years of her captivity, as a young kid she feared the Native Americans when left to live alone with them. She begged her father to manage for her rescue from their custody (The Archive Organization 33). John Williams did nothing prac tically to get her rescued. He met her on regular basis and tried to get the process carried out on the official basis. Her desire to get out of the culture subsided along with the time and alongside developed into a revenge against her father and other protestants who had not dared to get her rescued from the alien culture where as a child she had frequently felt she did not belong to (Sweeney 12). She, along with the time instilled the culture to her roots and felt as a member of the Native Indian culture. She carried her physical appearances in the same way as they did and adopted their norms in her daily life. She also made religious shifts and got converted to Catholicism (The Archive Organization 57). In wider scenario, it’s the description of a girl, who uses a culture she had been abandoned into, to revenge against her own people, who had left her years earlier as young girl- it’s the Indian Culture’s insight through a young girl’s life (Meorial H all Mueseum 11). Cronon’s Changes in the Land William Cronon, the author of another famous book â€Å"Changes in the land† has also investigated the ecological changes from Indian to European dominance during the time period of 1620 to 1800 (William Coron Net 16). Demo’s book in my opinion is not reflective of the true way Cronon has

Teamwork and Leading Teams Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Teamwork and Leading Teams - Assignment Example Some team members publicly question the authority, and there are those that want to be in authority. Some advantages of teamwork include improvement in the quality of service. The production improves with active cooperation. Another advantage is shared ideas. A common agenda for teammates helps achieve a common goal. At the formation stage, clear directions were given, and challenges resolved. We were allowed to act on our individual thought and soon noted they somehow lacked in the ultimate goal of the company. As a group, we combined ideas and were able to tackle problems encountered. We developed the spirit of cohesion and trust was the central pillar of our team work. Teamwork is an accessible door to enter into an organization culture. Collaboration improves companys performance and is an indispensable part of any business (Maxwell, 2014). Group culture geared towards cooperation helps achieve goals and work in a given time frame. If I were to assume a leadership role, I would put emphasis on the group’s achievements over individual performance. In-group competition kills the spirit of comradeship and diverts from the teams goal. I would organize frequent team building activities among members and institute competition among themselves. Regular teamwork brings the company together as well as a refresh on the focal purpose of the enterprise. Formal communication is essential for passing vital information. Memos and circulars at key installation place deliver information to all people. Communication can pass through informal means of communication like propaganda and grapevine. Information flows quickly using informal means but stands a chance of being distorted. Informal information is easy to assimilate for team members, unlike formal communication (West, 2012). As the team leader, I would be with my team throughout the process starting with formation. Ensure each member knows her role and, above all, the main reason for